Kyrgyzstan's 2025 Parliamentary Elections: Political Games Under New Rules and a New Landscape

On November 30, 2025, Kyrgyzstan will hold its ninth parliamentary election since independence. This election is attracting significant attention due to a series of profound institutional changes, from the voting mechanism and constituency delineation to eligibility and voting methods. This is not merely a routine power transition, but also a crucial stress test of Kyrgyzstan's political development path. Its outcome will profoundly influence the country's political trajectory for years to come and provide a key window into the political evolution of Central Asia.

Election Background and the Trajectory of Institutional Change

The official explanation for the early election is that the presidential election is scheduled for January 2027. Amendments to the election law, which came into effect in June 2025, changed the voting system and constituency delineation, paving the way for the early election. Parliament passed a resolution to dissolve itself at the end of September, subsequently setting the election date. However, deeper reasons need to be examined within the context of the institutional restructuring that has occurred since the political changes of 2020. The 2020 parliamentary elections, marred by allegations of widespread fraud, sparked public protests and ultimately led to a change of government, with Sadyr Japarov coming to power. Following this political turmoil, the country initiated constitutional reforms and adopted a new constitution in 2021, strengthening presidential power. This was followed by ongoing adjustments to the electoral system.

Kyrgyzstan's electoral system has undergone numerous transformations, reflecting its political evolution. In the early years of independence in 1991, it retained the framework of the Soviet-era system. After the 2005 "Tulip Revolution," the political atmosphere was relatively relaxed, even briefly allowing candidates with criminal records to run. In 2007, a constitutional referendum introduced proportional representation through party lists, which enabled then-President Kurmanbek Bakiyev's "Bright Path" party to win an absolute majority in parliament, strengthening the executive branch's control over the legislature. Following the turmoil of 2020, the 2021 parliamentary elections adopted a mixed system: of the 90 seats, 36 were elected through a single-member constituency majority (i.e., a single-authority system), and the remaining 54 were allocated proportionally based on party lists. This compromise attempted to balance geographical representation with party politics.

However, the new electoral law, which officially came into effect in June 2025, marked a fundamental shift. This law completely abandoned the party list system, returning to a fully single-authority voting system. This was the most significant adjustment to the electoral system since 2007. Simultaneously, the number of constituencies was reduced from 36 in 2021 to 30, with each constituency electing three members of parliament. These institutional changes paved the way for snap elections in November 2025, and Parliament formally initiated the electoral process by passing a resolution to dissolve itself at the end of September 2024.

New Rules and Key Features of the 2025 Election

The new rules for this election are reflected on several levels, aiming to reshape the environment and outcomes of political competition:

1. Voting System: A completely single-authority system: Candidates no longer run under the name of a political party, but rather as individuals in specific constituencies. Voters directly vote for their preferred candidate, and the candidate with the most votes is elected. This system is considered more conducive to strengthening the connection between members of parliament and voters in their constituencies, but it may also weaken the role of political parties in national politics and potentially lead to a more fragmented parliamentary political landscape.

2. Constituency Division and Seat Allocation: The country is divided into 30 constituencies, each electing 3 members of parliament, maintaining a total of 90 seats. This means increased representativeness in each constituency, but the expansion of constituency size may also increase the complexity and cost of campaigning.

3. Gender Quota Mechanism: The new rules explicitly require that at least one of the 3 members of parliament elected in each constituency must be a woman. This is a mandatory measure aimed at promoting women's political participation. If the election results do not naturally meet this condition, a specific mechanism (such as replacing the unelected female candidate with the most votes in that constituency) will be used to ensure its fulfillment. This provision could significantly alter the gender structure of parliament.

4. By-election Rules: To avoid frequent by-elections due to the departure of members of parliament, the new law stipulates that if a seat becomes vacant, it will be automatically filled by the candidate who ranks fourth in the vote in that constituency, without the need for a by-election. This helps maintain parliamentary stability but has also sparked debate about the continuity of elected representatives.

5. Candidate Qualifications: Candidates must meet certain conditions, including being at least 25 years old, possessing a higher education qualification, and having resided continuously in Kyrgyzstan for five years prior to election. Notably, those with criminal records are prohibited from running, a contrast to the brief period of leniency after 2005, although those whose convictions were later overturned by the judiciary were allowed to run.

6. Nationwide Voting Mechanism: A major operational reform is that voters can cast their ballots at any polling station nationwide using their identity card, no longer limited to their place of residence. This measure aims to improve voting convenience and may have a positive impact on voter participation in areas with high population mobility.

7. Campaign Regulations: The maximum allowed size of a campaign team has been increased from 500 to 1,000 people, although President Japarov himself has questioned this, arguing it is not necessary.

As of the candidate registration deadline of October 30, 2025, a total of 589 people have submitted applications (365 men and 224 women), vying for 90 seats. The Central Election Commission is currently reviewing eligibility, and the final list of candidates is yet to be determined. The number of registered eligible voters for this election is approximately 4.287 million. 2,492 polling stations have been set up domestically, and 91 overseas polling stations have been established in 31 countries worldwide (Russia has the most with 36, followed by Turkey with 8, and the United States with 6), facilitating the exercise of rights by overseas citizens.

Potential Impacts and Observations from a Global Perspective

Kyrgyzstan is known as the "island of democracy" in Central Asia, but its political history has been turbulent, experiencing multiple revolutions and constitutional changes. The 2025 election is a test of the new power structure and social consensus within this complex historical context. The impact of its process and outcomes will transcend national borders:

* Impact on the domestic political landscape:

* Evolution of party politics: A single-authority system may weaken the influence of national parties and strengthen the position of local elites and charismatic politicians. Factional formation within parliament may be more based on region or interest groups than on ideological platforms, posing challenges to government formation and governance efficiency.

* Women's political participation: Mandatory gender quotas are a bold attempt to increase women's political participation. Their effectiveness—including the representation of elected women and parliamentary attention to gender issues—will become important indicators of social progress.

* Electoral fairness and legitimacy: Under the new system, the transparency and fairness of the electoral process, and the widespread acceptance of the results, are crucial to political stability. The memory of the 2020 events is still fresh; any controversy regarding fraud could trigger new political risks.

Executive-legislative relationship: Under a constitutional framework that strengthens presidential power, how will the new parliament interact with the presidential palace? Whether it fosters cooperation or confrontation will affect policymaking and the effectiveness of national governance. Regional and Global Significance:

* A Reference for Central Asian Political Models: In Central Asia, political systems and development paths vary among countries. Kyrgyzstan's relatively active political competition and frequent institutional changes provide a unique case study for observing post-Soviet spatial political transformation. Whether this election leads to more stable democratic governance or further strengthens power centralization will be closely watched both within and outside the region.

* Geopolitical Considerations: Kyrgyzstan is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Eurasian Economic Union, and maintains relations with neighboring major powers and the West. While the election results do not necessarily lead to a fundamental shift in foreign policy, the political leanings of the new parliament may affect its delicate balance in relations with Russia, China, the United States, and other countries.

* Political Participation Reflected by Voter Turnout: Voter turnout in Kyrgyzstan's elections has fluctuated significantly in recent years (e.g., only 32.25% in the 2021 parliamentary elections, compared to 58.89% in the 2020 elections). Whether nationwide voting and other convenient measures can effectively increase voter participation is an important barometer of public trust in the current political system. Low voter turnout may reflect political apathy or dissatisfaction with the options. Conclusion

The 2025 parliamentary elections in Kyrgyzstan represent a political experiment conducted under entirely new rules. The return to a single-authority system from a party-list system, the introduction of gender quotas, and the implementation of nationwide voting aim to address problems exposed in previous elections and explore a governance model more suited to the country's circumstances. However, any institutional adjustment is accompanied by uncertainty. Whether the new rules can effectively promote more representative political participation, improve the fairness and efficiency of elections, and ultimately consolidate political stability remains to be seen.

In the context of globalization and regional integration, Kyrgyzstan's internal political evolution is not only related to the well-being of its own people but also an integral part of the political landscape of Central Asia. The international community is paying close attention to this election, primarily because it aims to find a path for this mountainous country that balances stability, development, and inclusiveness. The ballot boxes on election day will bear the weight of choices regarding the country's future direction, and their echoes will resonate long afterward in the valleys of the Pamir Mountains.